National People’s Congress (NPC)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈnæʃnəl ˈpiːpəlz ˈkɒŋɡrəs/

Definition:

The National People’s Congress (NPC) is the highest legislative body in the People’s Republic of China. It is the national parliament, officially responsible for making laws, approving the budget, overseeing the government, and electing or removing top state officials—including the President and Premier. However, in practice, the NPC often formally approves decisions made by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leadership.

The NPC meets once a year in Beijing and has nearly 3,000 delegates, making it the largest parliamentary body in the world.

中文翻译：

全国人民代表大会（全国人大） —— 是中华人民共和国的最高国家权力机关，具有立法、决定国家重大事务、监督政府以及选举和罢免国家领导人的权力。但在实际运作中，全国人大通常是对中国共产党作出的决策进行形式上的通过。

全国人大每年在北京召开一次会议，有近3000名代表，是全球规模最大的国家议会。

Example sentences:

The National People’s Congress passed the new national security law for Hong Kong.

（全国人大通过了香港国安法。）

While the NPC has legislative power, most decisions are directed by the Communist Party.

（尽管全国人大全有立法权，但多数决策由共产党主导。）

Delegates to the National People’s Congress represent provinces, military units, and various sectors.

（全国人大的代表来自各省、军队以及各行各业。）

Let me know if you'd like a comparison between the NPC and parliaments in democratic systems.

premier(in China)

premier (in China)

Part of speech: noun (title)

IPA: /ˈpriːmɪər/ or /prəˈmɪər/ (both are correct)

Definition:

In China, the Premier is the head of the State Council, which is the central government of the People’s Republic of China. The Premier is second in rank after the President and is mainly responsible for managing the country's economic and administrative affairs.

The Premier leads the cabinet (State Council), oversees ministries, and implements policies made by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The position is appointed by the President and approved by the National People’s Congress (NPC).

中文翻译：

国务院总理（简称“总理”） —— 是中华人民共和国政府的首脑，负责国家的经济管理、日常行政工作和政策执行。在国家政治结构中，总理仅次于国家主席。

总理由国家主席提名，并由全国人民代表大会正式任命，同时领导国务院，即中央人民政府。

Example sentences:

The Premier of China announced new economic reforms during the annual NPC session.

（中国总理在全国人大年会上宣布了新的经济改革措施。）

As head of the State Council, the Premier manages ministries such as finance, commerce, and health.

（作为国务院总理，他负责管理财政、商务、卫生等各部委。）

While the Premier has administrative authority, the most powerful figure in China remains the General Secretary of the Communist Party.

（虽然总理有行政权，但中国最有权力的职位仍是中共中央总书记。）

Let me know if you'd like a comparison between the Premier, President, and Party General Secretary in China’s political system.

Supreme People's Court(in China)

Supreme People’s Court (in China)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /suːˈpriːm ˈpiːpəlz kɔːrt/

Definition:

The Supreme People’s Court (SPC) is the highest judicial authority in the People’s Republic of China. It supervises the work of all lower-level courts, handles major appeals, and ensures uniform interpretation and application of laws throughout the country.

The SPC is not independent in the Western democratic sense, as China’s judiciary operates under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Judges of the SPC are appointed by the National People’s Congress (NPC).

中文翻译：

最高人民法院 —— 是中华人民共和国的最高审判机关，负责领导全国各级人民法院的审判工作，审理重大上诉案件，并统一法律适用。

虽然它名义上是司法机构，但中国的司法体系在实际运行中受中国共产党领导，并不像西方国家的司法系统那样独立。最高法院的院长由全国人民代表大会选举产生。

Example sentences:

The Supreme People’s Court ruled on a major case involving environmental protection laws.

（最高人民法院对一起重大环境保护法律案件作出裁决。）

In China, the Supreme People’s Court provides official interpretations of national laws.

（在中国，最高人民法院负责发布国家法律的官方解释。）

Although it is the highest court, the Supreme People’s Court operates under the guidance of the Communist Party.

（尽管是最高法院，最高人民法院仍在党的领导下运作。）

Let me know if you’d like to explore how China’s legal system compares to systems with judicial independence.

General Secretary of the Communist Party

General Secretary of the Communist Party (of China)

Part of speech: noun (title)

IPA: /ˈdʒɛnərəl ˈsɛkrəˌtɛri əv ðə ˈkɒmjʊnɪst ˈpɑːrti/

Definition:

The General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is the highest-ranking official in China’s political system. This position holds the real power in China, as the General Secretary is the top leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)—which controls the state, military, and all key institutions.

The General Secretary typically also serves as:

President of the People’s Republic of China (head of state)

Chairman of the Central Military Commission (commander-in-chief)

Together, these three roles make the General Secretary the de facto top leader of China.

中文翻译：

中共中央总书记 —— 是中国权力最高的职位，也是中国共产党（中共）最高领导人，掌握国家、军队和主要机构的核心权力。

中共中央总书记通常同时兼任国家主席和中央军委主席，集党政军大权于一身，是中国事实上的最高领导人。

Example sentences:

The General Secretary sets the overall direction for China’s domestic and foreign policy.

（中共中央总书记决定中国内政和外交的总方向。）

Xi Jinping currently serves as China’s General Secretary, President, and head of the military.

（习近平目前兼任中国的总书记、国家主席和军委主席。）

In China, the General Secretary wields more power than the President alone.

（在中国，总书记比单独的国家主席拥有更大的实际权力。）

Let me know if you’d like a breakdown of China’s top leadership structure or a comparison to leaders in other political systems.

Politburo

Politburo

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈpɒlɪtbjʊəˌrəʊ/

Definition:

The Politburo (short for Political Bureau) is the top decision-making body of a Communist Party, especially in China or formerly in the Soviet Union. In China, the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) consists of 25 members, including the Politburo Standing Committee, which holds the most powerful positions in the country.

The Politburo oversees major national policies, the economy, military, and party discipline. All key national decisions are shaped and directed by this body, under the leadership of the General Secretary.

中文翻译：

政治局（中共中央政治局） —— 是中国共产党最高决策机构之一，由25名成员组成。它负责制定国家大政方针，领导全国各级党组织的工作。其核心是政治局常务委员会，是中国权力最集中的领导核心。

Example sentences:

The Politburo met to discuss the government’s new economic strategy.

（政治局召开会议讨论新的经济战略。）

Major policy shifts in China typically originate from the Politburo or its Standing Committee.

（中国的重大政策变化通常源自政治局或其常务委员会。）

The Politburo is dominated by top leaders of the Communist Party, including the General Secretary.

（政治局由共产党高级领导人主导，包括总书记。）

Let me know if you’d like more detail about the Politburo Standing Committee or how it fits into the CCP’s leadership hierarchy.

politburo Standing Committee

Politburo Standing Committee (of the Chinese Communist Party)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈpɒlɪtbjʊəʊ ˈstændɪŋ kəˈmɪti/

Definition:

The Politburo Standing Committee (PSC) is the most powerful decision-making body in China and sits at the very top of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) hierarchy. It is a smaller group selected from the larger Politburo, typically made up of 5 to 9 members (currently 7). These members include China’s top leadership, such as the:

General Secretary (China’s top leader)

Premier

Other high-ranking party officials responsible for ideology, discipline, propaganda, etc.

The PSC makes decisions on all major national policies, including economic planning, security, foreign affairs, and internal governance. All important state institutions ultimately follow the direction set by this committee.

中文翻译：

中共中央政治局常务委员会（政治局常委会） —— 是中国共产党最高权力中枢，由政治局中挑选出的5至9人组成（现为7人）。常委会成员包括：

中共中央总书记（国家最高领导人）

国务院总理

以及其他负责意识形态、组织、人事、政法等事务的高级官员

政治局常委会对国家政治、经济、外交、军队等重大事务进行最终决策，具有实际最高决策权力。

Example sentences:

The Politburo Standing Committee holds ultimate authority over China’s national policy decisions.

（政治局常委会对中国国家政策拥有最终决策权。）

All members of the Standing Committee are senior figures within the Chinese Communist Party.

（常委会的所有成员都是中共的高级领导人。）

Leadership changes in China are usually reflected first in the makeup of the Politburo Standing Committee.

（中国的领导层变动通常首先体现在政治局常委会的成员组成上。）

Let me know if you'd like a visual diagram of China's top political structure or the current PSC member list.

people's liberation army

People’s Liberation Army (PLA)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈpiːpəlz ˌlɪbəˈreɪʃən ˈɑːrmi/

Definition:

The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is the armed forces of the People’s Republic of China and the military wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It is the largest military force in the world in terms of active personnel.

The PLA consists of several branches:

Ground Force (Army)

Navy (PLAN)

Air Force (PLAAF)

Rocket Force (missiles and nuclear weapons)

Strategic Support Force (cyber, space, electronic warfare)

Unlike most national militaries, the PLA is loyal to the Communist Party, not to the state or constitution.

中文翻译：

中国人民解放军（简称“解放军”） —— 是中华人民共和国的武装力量，也是中国共产党领导下的军事组织。它是全球现役人数最多的军队。

解放军包括五大军种：

陆军

海军

空军

火箭军（战略导弹与核力量）

战略支援部队（网络、空间、电磁战）

与多数国家的军队不同，解放军效忠的对象是中国共产党，而不是国家宪法。

Example sentences:

The People’s Liberation Army conducted joint military exercises near the Taiwan Strait.

（中国人民解放军在台湾海峡附近进行了联合军事演习。）

The PLA is under the command of the Central Military Commission, chaired by the CCP leader.

（解放军由中共中央军委领导，主席由中共最高领导人担任。）

The People’s Liberation Army plays a key role in China’s national defense and strategic ambitions.

（中国人民解放军在国家防御和战略目标中发挥着关键作用。）

Let me know if you’d like to explore more about the Central Military Commission or specific branches like the PLA Navy or Rocket Force.

central military commision

Central Military Commission (CMC)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈsɛntrəl ˈmɪlɪtɛri kəˈmɪʃən/

Definition:

The Central Military Commission (CMC) is the highest military authority in China, overseeing the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). It is responsible for military policy, command, and organization, and it ensures the PLA's loyalty to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

There are technically two CMCs:

Party CMC (of the CCP)

State CMC (of the government)

➡️ In practice, they are the same in leadership and function, and the CCP CMC holds the real power.

The Chairman of the CMC is China’s top military leader—usually the General Secretary of the CCP (currently Xi Jinping), making him the commander-in-chief of all Chinese armed forces.

中文翻译：

中央军事委员会（简称“中央军委”） —— 是中国的最高军事领导机构，负责领导和管理中国人民解放军（PLA）。它制定军事政策、指挥军队，并确保军队始终效忠于中国共产党。

形式上分为：

中共中央军委（党的军委）

中华人民共和国中央军委（国家军委）

➡️ 实际上这两个军委人员和职能一致，但真正的权力来自中共中央军委。

军委主席是中国军队的最高领导人，通常由中共中央总书记兼任（现任为习近平），拥有最高军权。

Example sentences:

The Central Military Commission directs all branches of the People’s Liberation Army.

（中央军委指挥解放军所有军种。）

Xi Jinping serves as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, giving him control over China’s military.

（习近平担任中央军委主席，掌控中国军队。）

The Central Military Commission ensures the PLA remains loyal to the Communist Party.

（中央军委确保解放军始终忠于中国共产党。）

Let me know if you’d like a chart of China’s military command structure or how it compares to systems like the U.S. Department of Defense.

PBOC

PBOC (People’s Bank of China)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun, acronym)

IPA: /ˌpiːbiːəʊˈsiː/

Definition:

The PBOC, or People’s Bank of China, is the central bank of the People’s Republic of China. It is responsible for:

Formulating and implementing monetary policy

Managing interest rates and the money supply

Issuing the Chinese currency (the renminbi, RMB or yuan)

Regulating the financial system and maintaining financial stability

Managing China’s foreign exchange reserves

Although a central bank, the PBOC operates under the leadership of the State Council and the Chinese Communist Party, which influence its decisions more directly than in independent central banks in countries like the U.S. or EU.

中文翻译：

中国人民银行（简称“央行”或“人行”） —— 是中华人民共和国的中央银行，主要职能包括：

制定和执行货币政策

管理利率和货币供应

发行人民币

监管金融体系，维护金融稳定

管理中国的外汇储备

中国人民银行在职责上类似于其他国家的中央银行，但不具有独立性，其政策决策受到国务院和中国共产党的直接领导和指导。

Example sentences:

The PBOC adjusted interest rates to stimulate economic growth.

（中国人民银行调整利率以刺激经济增长。）

The PBOC plays a key role in managing China’s currency and foreign exchange reserves.

（央行在管理人民币和外汇储备方面起着关键作用。）

Unlike the U.S. Federal Reserve, the PBOC does not operate independently of the government.

（与美国联邦储备系统不同，央行的运作不独立于政府。）

Let me know if you'd like a comparison of the PBOC vs. Federal Reserve or an explanation of how it manages the renminbi exchange rate.

central commission for discipline inspection

Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈsɛntrəl kəˈmɪʃən fə ˈdɪsəplɪn ˌɪnspekʃən/

Definition:

The Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI) is the top internal disciplinary body of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It is responsible for enforcing party discipline, investigating corruption, and punishing misconduct by party members.

The CCDI functions as the party’s internal watchdog and plays a central role in China's anti-corruption campaigns, especially under the leadership of Xi Jinping. It often works closely with the National Supervisory Commission, which handles similar duties at the state level.

The CCDI has the power to:

Investigate high-ranking party officials

Detain and question members under a system called "liuzhi" (留置)

Recommend legal prosecution through state channels

中文翻译：

中共中央纪律检查委员会（简称“中纪委”） —— 是中国共产党内部的最高纪律检查机关，负责党内监督、反腐败和纪律处分。

中纪委是党内的“反腐核心机构”，在习近平主导的全面从严治党政策中发挥了重要作用。它通常与国家机构的国家监察委员会协同工作。

中纪委的主要职能包括：

调查高级党员干部

对违纪党员实施“留置”等纪律审查手段

将涉嫌违法行为移交司法机关处理

Example sentences:

The Central Commission for Discipline Inspection launched an investigation into a provincial party secretary.

（中纪委对一名省级党委书记展开调查。）

The CCDI is a key force behind China’s ongoing anti-corruption campaign.

（中纪委是中国持续反腐运动的重要力量。）

Officials under CCDI investigation are often removed from their positions pending review.

（接受中纪委调查的官员通常会被暂停职务，接受审查。）

Let me know if you'd like to learn more about how the CCDI and National Supervisory Commission cooperate or how discipline inspection differs from legal prosecution in China.

national supervision commission

National Supervisory Commission (NSC)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈnæʃənəl səˈpɜːvɪʒən kəˈmɪʃən/

Definition:

The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest anti-corruption and oversight agency of the People’s Republic of China. It was established in 2018 and works alongside the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI), but it operates as a state body (not just within the Communist Party).

The NSC is responsible for:

Investigating public officials (including non-party members)

Overseeing integrity, discipline, and lawfulness in public service

Detaining suspects and collecting evidence under a system called liúzhì (留置)

Coordinating with judicial authorities for prosecution

The NSC is essentially a super agency that combines the functions of anti-corruption, auditing, and supervision, and reflects the party-state integration model of governance in China.

中文翻译：

国家监察委员会（简称“国家监委”） —— 是中华人民共和国的最高监察机关，于2018年设立，负责对所有公职人员（包括非中共党员）进行监察、反腐和纪律执法。

国家监委的职责包括：

监察和调查国家机关、公务员、国有企事业单位人员等

查处职务违法与职务犯罪

实施留置措施（替代“双规”）进行调查

将调查结果移送检察机关提起公诉

国家监委与中共中央纪律检查委员会（中纪委）合署办公，体现了党政合一、权力集中监督的新治理结构。

Example sentences:

The National Supervisory Commission has the authority to investigate any public official in China.

（国家监委有权调查中国的任何公职人员。）

Unlike the CCDI, the NSC also monitors non-party members in government positions.

（与中纪委不同，国家监委也监察非党员的国家工作人员。）

The creation of the National Supervisory Commission marked a major reform in China’s anti-corruption system.

（国家监察委员会的成立标志着中国反腐体制的重大改革。）

Let me know if you'd like a comparison chart of the NSC vs. CCDI or an explanation of the liuzhi (留置) detention system.

Central Committee (in China)

Central Committee (in China)

Part of speech: noun (proper noun)

IPA: /ˈsɛntrəl kəˈmɪti/

Definition:

The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is a top-level political body composed of the Party’s most senior leaders. It functions as the main decision-making body of the Party between National Congresses, which are held every five years.

The Central Committee has roughly 200 full members and 170 alternate members, elected by the National Party Congress. While it formally meets only once a year (in a Plenary Session, or plenum), most real decision-making power resides in its Politburo and Politburo Standing Committee, which are elected by the Central Committee.

中文翻译：

中共中央委员会（简称“中央委员会”或“中央”） —— 是中国共产党在全国代表大会闭会期间的最高领导机构，由中共高级领导人组成。

中央委员会由约200名中央委员和约170名候补委员构成，由中共全国代表大会选举产生。虽然它形式上是一项集体决策机构，但实际权力集中在它所选出的政治局及其常务委员会中。

Main functions:

Elects the General Secretary, Politburo, and Politburo Standing Committee

Approves major party policies, personnel changes, and strategic directions

Convenes in plenary sessions to make key political declarations

Example sentences:

The Central Committee elected a new Politburo during its First Plenary Session.

（中央委员会在一中全会中选举产生了新一届政治局。）

Although the Central Committee is large, real power lies in the smaller Politburo it selects.

（尽管中央委员会成员众多，实际权力集中在其选出的政治局手中。）

Each plenary session of the Central Committee is closely watched for policy signals.

（中央委员会的每次全会都受到外界关注，被视为政策风向标。）

Let me know if you'd like a visual chart showing how the CCP leadership structure flows from the Central Committee down to local levels.

Cultural Revolution (in China)

Part of speech: proper noun (historical term)

IPA: /ˈkʌltʃərəl ˌrɛvəˈluːʃən/

Definition:

The Cultural Revolution (officially the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) was a sociopolitical movement in China from 1966 to 1976, launched by Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. Its goal was to preserve and enforce communist ideology by removing perceived "capitalist" and "traditional" elements from Chinese society and to reassert Mao's control over the party and country.

The movement led to widespread chaos, the persecution of intellectuals, destruction of cultural heritage, public humiliation, imprisonment, and in many cases, death.

中文翻译：

文化大革命（简称“文革”） —— 是毛泽东于1966年发起，持续至1976年的一场大规模社会政治运动。其目的是清除资本主义和传统文化影响，并巩固毛泽东对党和国家的控制权。

文革期间发生了大规模斗争、迫害、下放知识分子，大量文物、古籍被毁，造成深远的社会动荡和人道灾难。

Key events and features:

Red Guards: youth groups mobilized to attack "counter-revolutionaries"

Down to the Countryside Movement: intellectuals and youth sent to rural areas

Attacks on the “Four Olds”: old customs, culture, habits, and ideas

Collapse of education, economy, and governance in many areas

Example sentences:

The Cultural Revolution caused widespread suffering and disrupted education for a generation.

（文化大革命造成了广泛的苦难，扰乱了一代人的教育。）

Many intellectuals and officials were publicly humiliated or imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution.

（在文化大革命期间，许多知识分子和官员被公开羞辱或遭到监禁。）

The Cultural Revolution left a lasting impact on Chinese society, politics, and cultural memory.

（文化大革命对中国社会、政治和文化记忆留下了深远的影响。）

Let me know if you’d like a summary of key figures or events from that period.

“Gang of Four” (in China)

Part of speech: proper noun (historical political group)

IPA: /ɡæŋ əv fɔːr/

Definition:

The “Gang of Four” (四人帮 Sì Rén Bāng) refers to a radical political faction in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) that rose to power during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). The group included:

Jiang Qing (江青) – Mao Zedong’s wife and the most prominent member

Zhang Chunqiao (张春桥)

Yao Wenyuan (姚文元)

Wang Hongwen (王洪文)

They were known for:

Promoting radical leftist ideology

Persecuting intellectuals and officials

Controlling propaganda, culture, and policy during the Cultural Revolution

After Mao Zedong’s death in 1976, the Gang of Four was arrested and blamed for the excesses and chaos of the Cultural Revolution. Their fall marked the end of the Cultural Revolution and the beginning of China's reform era under Deng Xiaoping.

中文翻译：

“四人帮” —— 是文化大革命时期中共高层的激进政治集团，在1966至1976年间掌握极大权力。四人帮成员包括：

江青（毛泽东夫人，实际领导者）

张春桥

姚文元

王洪文

他们主张极左路线，在文革中推动思想整肃、打倒老干部、迫害知识分子，掌控宣传、文艺与政策制定。

1976年毛泽东逝世后，四人帮被华国锋等人逮捕，随后被定罪，成为文革罪行的象征。这一事件也标志着文革的终结和改革开放的开始。

Example sentences:

The Gang of Four played a major role in deepening the chaos of the Cultural Revolution.

（四人帮在加剧文化大革命的混乱中扮演了关键角色。）

After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was arrested and held responsible for many of the era’s abuses.

（毛泽东去世后，四人帮被捕，并被追责为文革期间的诸多暴行负责。）

The fall of the Gang of Four paved the way for Deng Xiaoping’s rise and China's reform era.

（四人帮倒台为邓小平的崛起和中国的改革时代铺平了道路。）

Let me know if you'd like a timeline of events or more about the Cultural Revolution's political structure.

June Fourth Incident (1989)

Part of speech: proper noun (historical term)

IPA: /dʒuːn fɔːrθ ˈɪnsɪdənt/

Definition:

The June Fourth Incident refers to the Tiananmen Square Massacre, which occurred in Beijing, China, on June 3–4, 1989. It was the violent military crackdown on large-scale pro-democracy protests led mostly by students, who had gathered to demand political reform, freedom of speech, anti-corruption, and other democratic rights.

After weeks of peaceful demonstrations in Tiananmen Square, the Chinese government declared martial law and sent in the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). Troops and tanks opened fire on unarmed civilians, killing and injuring hundreds to possibly thousands of people. The exact death toll remains unknown and heavily censored in China.

中文翻译：

“六四事件”或“1989年天安门事件” —— 是指1989年6月3日至4日，中国政府在北京天安门广场对大规模要求民主与政治改革的学生和平抗议进行的武力镇压。

事件中，军队在戒严令下向手无寸铁的平民开枪，造成大量人员伤亡。至今官方未公开确切死亡人数，该事件在中国境内属于高度敏感话题，受到严格审查和封锁。

Example sentences:

The June Fourth Incident is remembered internationally as a symbol of the struggle for democracy in China.

（六四事件在国际上被视为中国争取民主的象征。）

The Chinese government continues to censor discussion of the June Fourth Incident.

（中国政府至今仍严密审查有关六四事件的讨论。）

Photographs like “Tank Man” became powerful global symbols of the 1989 Tiananmen protests.

（“坦克人”等照片成为1989年天安门抗议的全球象征。）

Let me know if you’d like a timeline of the events, information on key figures, or how it’s viewed domestically vs. internationally.

Great Leap Forward (in China)

Part of speech: proper noun (historical term)

IPA: /ɡreɪt liːp ˈfɔːrwərd/

Definition:

The Great Leap Forward was a social and economic campaign launched by Mao Zedong in China from 1958 to 1962. Its goal was to rapidly transform China from an agrarian economy into a socialist industrial powerhouse through collectivization, communal living, and mass mobilization of labor.

The campaign promoted unrealistic production targets, such as producing steel in backyard furnaces and drastically reorganizing rural life into People’s Communes. It led to massive economic disruption, widespread famine, and the deaths of an estimated 15 to 45 million people, making it one of the worst man-made disasters in history.

中文翻译：

大跃进 —— 是中国共产党毛泽东于1958年至1962年发起的一项社会经济运动，旨在通过农业集体化、人民公社制度和群众动员，快速实现工业化和农业现代化，把中国建设成社会主义强国。

由于政策脱离实际、数据造假和对自然规律的忽视，这一运动导致大规模经济混乱和三年大饥荒，估计有1500万至4500万人非正常死亡。

Key features:

Establishment of People’s Communes

Backyard furnaces for steel production

Abandonment of private farming

Inflated grain reports leading to state over-collection

Widespread famine and suffering

Example sentences:

The Great Leap Forward aimed to catch up with Western industrial nations in just a few years.

（大跃进旨在几年内赶上西方工业国家。）

Policies during the Great Leap Forward caused severe famine and millions of deaths.

（大跃进时期的政策导致严重饥荒，数百万人死亡。）

The failure of the Great Leap Forward weakened Mao’s political influence for a time.

（大跃进的失败一度削弱了毛泽东的政治影响力。）

Let me know if you'd like to explore a timeline of events, causes and consequences, or comparison with other major historical economic campaigns.

Three Years of Great Famine (in China)

Part of speech: proper noun (historical term)

IPA: /θriː jɪərz əv ɡreɪt ˈfæmɪn/

Definition:

The Three Years of Great Famine (also called the Great Chinese Famine) refers to the nationwide famine in China from 1959 to 1961, which occurred during and after the Great Leap Forward. It is considered the deadliest famine in human history, with an estimated 15 to 45 million deaths.

The famine was caused by a combination of:

Radical agricultural policies from the Great Leap Forward

Forced collectivization and the creation of People’s Communes

Inflated grain production reports, leading to excessive state procurement

Natural disasters (exaggerated in official accounts)

Suppression of dissent, which prevented accurate reporting or relief

中文翻译：

三年大饥荒（1959–1961年） —— 是指发生在中国全国范围内的大规模饥荒，与大跃进时期的错误政策直接相关，是人类历史上死亡人数最多的饥荒之一，死亡估计在1500万至4500万人之间。

主要成因包括：

大跃进的激进农业政策

人民公社与集体化导致生产效率下降

浮夸风与粮食过度征收

虚报灾情、掩盖问题，导致缺乏救援

对言论的打压让基层无法反映真实情况

Example sentences:

The Three Years of Great Famine resulted in tens of millions of deaths across rural China.

（三年大饥荒导致中国农村数千万人死亡。）

Scholars now view the famine as largely man-made, stemming from policy failure and political repression.

（学者普遍认为这场饥荒主要是人为造成的，源于政策失误和政治压制。）

During the famine, people in some areas were forced to eat tree bark, grass, and even soil to survive.

（饥荒期间，一些地区的人被迫以树皮、野草甚至泥土充饥。）

Let me know if you'd like a timeline, more on the connection to the Great Leap Forward, or how this event is discussed in modern Chinese historiography.

cannibalism

Part of speech: noun

IPA: /ˈkænɪbəlɪzəm/

Definition:

Cannibalism is the act of one individual eating the flesh of another individual of the same species. In human context, it refers to humans eating other humans, which is considered taboo, horrifying, or criminal in most cultures. It has occurred in some ritual, survival, or extreme famine situations.

中文翻译：

食人；同类相食 —— 指一个物种的个体吃掉同类的行为，在人类社会中通常特指人吃人，是一种在大多数文化中被视为禁忌、野蛮或犯罪的行为。

在极端条件下，如饥荒、战争或生存困境中，历史上曾出现过人类食人的情况。

Example sentences:

Historical records suggest cases of cannibalism during the Great Famine in China.

（历史记录表明，中国大饥荒期间曾出现过食人现象。）

Cannibalism is illegal and deeply condemned in modern society.

（在现代社会，食人行为是非法且遭到强烈谴责的。）

In some ancient cultures, ritual cannibalism was practiced for spiritual reasons.

（某些古代文化中，人们出于宗教或仪式目的进行食人行为。）

Let me know if you'd like to explore cannibalism in history, mythology, or survival scenarios.

People’s Communes (in China)

Part of speech: noun (historical term)

IPA: /ˈpiːpəlz ˈkɒmjuːnz/

Definition:

People’s Communes were large-scale collective farming and social units established in rural China during the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) under the leadership of Mao Zedong. These communes combined agriculture, industry, education, and administration into one unified structure and were designed to eliminate private property and promote communal living, shared labor, and collective ownership.

Each commune could include tens of thousands of people, divided into production brigades and teams, and had its own schools, canteens, and local government. The system aimed to rapidly boost food and industrial production, but it failed severely, contributing to the Three Years of Great Famine.

中文翻译：

人民公社 —— 是在大跃进时期（1958–1962年），由毛泽东发起在中国农村建立的大规模集体化组织形式，旨在将农业、工业、教育和行政职能合并，实现集体劳动、统一管理、公有制生活方式。

一个公社通常包括数万人口，划分为生产大队和生产队，设有公共食堂、学校和基层政权机构。人民公社被视为通往共产主义的一步，但实践中导致了农业减产、资源浪费，最终酿成了三年大饥荒。

Example sentences:

People's Communes were intended to centralize farming and eliminate private ownership in rural China.

（人民公社旨在农村实现农业集体化，消除私有财产。）

Life in the communes was highly regimented, with shared meals and forced labor quotas.

（公社生活高度组织化，实行集体就餐和强制劳动定额。）

The collapse of the People’s Commune system after the famine led to rural reforms in the late 1970s.

（大饥荒后人民公社制度的崩溃促使中国在1970年代末期开始农村改革。）

Let me know if you'd like a diagram of commune structure, or a comparison with Soviet collective farms.

Soviet Union

Part of speech: proper noun (historical country name)

IPA: /ˈsəʊviət ˈjuːniən/

Definition:

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, spanning Eastern Europe and northern Asia. It was a one-party state ruled by the Communist Party, and was the main rival of the United States during the Cold War.

The USSR was founded after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and was led by figures such as Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and later Mikhail Gorbachev. It included 15 republics, the largest being Russia.

The Soviet Union was known for:

Centralized planning and state ownership

A command economy

Strict political control and censorship

Being the first country to launch a satellite (Sputnik) and send a human into space (Yuri Gagarin)

Ultimately collapsing in 1991, leading to the independence of its republics and the formation of the Russian Federation

中文翻译：

苏联（全称：苏维埃社会主义共和国联盟，简称“苏维埃联盟”或“苏联”） —— 是一个从1922年到1991年存在的社会主义国家，地跨东欧与北亚，实行一党制，由共产党统治，是冷战时期美国的主要对手。

苏联由1917年俄国十月革命后建立，包括15个加盟共和国，其中俄罗斯是最大的组成国。苏联以高度集中的计划经济、政治压制和意识形态宣传著称，最终于1991年解体。

Example sentences:

The Soviet Union was one of the world’s two superpowers during the Cold War.

（苏联是冷战时期世界两大超级大国之一。）

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 ended decades of communist rule.

（1991年苏联的解体结束了长达数十年的共产主义统治。）

The Soviet Union played a key role in World War II and the development of the space race.

（苏联在二战和太空竞赛中扮演了关键角色。）

Let me know if you’d like a timeline of Soviet history, information on key leaders, or a comparison with China’s socialist model.

The Kuomintang (KMT) (in Chinese history)

Part of speech: proper noun (political party)

IPA: /ˈkwɔːmɪnˌtɑːŋ/

Definition:

The Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the Nationalist Party of China, is a political party founded in 1912 by Sun Yat-sen, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty. It played a central role in modern Chinese history, especially during the early 20th century.

The KMT:

Led the Republic of China (ROC) from 1927 to 1949, first under Chiang Kai-shek

Fought against warlords, Japanese invasion, and later the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the Chinese Civil War

Lost the civil war and retreated to Taiwan in 1949, where it established a separate government (still officially called the Republic of China)

Governed Taiwan under martial law until democratization in the 1990s

Remains an active political party in Taiwan today

中文翻译：

国民党（KMT，全名：中国国民党） —— 是中国近现代历史上具有重大影响的政党，由孙中山于1912年创建，在推翻清朝、建立民国后成为主要执政党。

国民党的历史角色包括：

1927–1949年间主导中华民国政府，以蒋介石为核心领导人

曾与军阀势力、日本侵略者及中国共产党进行长期斗争

1949年内战失败后撤退至台湾，建立“中华民国”政权

在台湾实行长期威权统治（戒严），后于1990年代推动民主改革

目前是台湾的重要政党之一

Example sentences:

The Kuomintang lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to Taiwan in 1949.

（国民党在中国内战中失败，于1949年撤退到台湾。）

Sun Yat-sen founded the Kuomintang based on his Three Principles of the People.

（孙中山依据“三民主义”创立了中国国民党。）

The Kuomintang ruled Taiwan for decades before transitioning to a democratic system.

（国民党在台湾执政数十年，后推动民主化转型。）

Let me know if you'd like more detail on KMT–CCP relations, the Chinese Civil War, or the KMT's modern role in Taiwan politics.